The Concept of Hygiene in Human life

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OBJECTIVE

The central objective of this lesson is to sensitize and acquaint the students the need for taking good care of their personal and environmental hygiene.

DEFINITION

Hygiene can simple be defined as the acts of keeping both the human body and environment clean, free from any sources of contaminating diseases.

ISLAMIC PERSPECTIVE OF HYGIENE

The concept of hygiene in Islam plays a vital role in the sense that, in one the Prophet (PBUH) Hadith reported that hygiene is half portion of one’s Iman, that is “ANNA ZAFATU MILLAL IMAN”.

CLASSIFICATION OF HYGIENE

Hygiene has been classified into two: one is the act of keeping the human body clean and tidy. This process involves one to be a custodian of the following activities such as: Bathing, Brushing, clothes washing, Shaving, Hair cutting, Nail cutting etc. While the second aspect of hygiene is the environmental hygiene which involves the practices of keeping the environment clean and tidy. This activity involves Sweeping, Grass weeding, Dusting, mopping etc.

THE IMPORTANCE OF HYGIENE IN HUMAN LIFE

The importance of hygiene in human life include among the following:

§ Avoid smelling, bad smell

§ Keeping us away from different kind of diseases

§ Prevent food poisoning

§ Prevent physical environmental contamination

CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY, BY IVAN PAVLOV

BEHAVIORIST APPROACH

IVAN PAVLOV, THE CLASSICAL CONDITIONING THEORY

Classical conditioning theory of learning developed by Ivan Pavlov is a reflexive or automatic type of learning in which a stimulus acquires the capacity to evoke a response that was originally evoked by another stimulus. The originator and key contributors, were first by Ivan Pavlov in the year (1849-1936), followed by Russian physiologist, in year (1903), and studied on infants by John B. Watson (1878-1958). The key words under this discussion are: stimulus-response, psychic reflexes, unconditioned stimulus, conditioned response,

There are several types of learning in this our contemporary universe. One of the most basic forms is associative learning, i.e., making a new association between events in the environment, and associative form of learning was also categorised into two forms, one is classical conditioning (made famous by Ivan Pavlov’s experiments with dogs) and the other is operant conditioning.

The frame-work for engagement theory

THE ENGAGEMENT THEORY FRAME-WORK

Kearsley & Schneiderman

The fundamental idea behind the Engagement theory is that students should be meaningfully involved in their learning, and this come through interactive and worthwhile tasks. Although the use of technology is not essential, it is found that technology can promote engagement that is difficult to achieve otherwise.

The engagement theory encourages and promotes:

i) working collaboratively

ii) project based learning

iii) have an authentic focus

From the above frame-work, we can vividly seen that, teachers can basically choose between different teaching styles available, but most importantly is the engagement of learners in their own learning process. Engagement theory is the advocate of constructivist teaching and learning style.

The theory emphasized on the collaborative and involvement of learners to acquire knowledge by themselves. Teachers should involve learners through either project task, problems solving, or inquiry task etc.

Moreover, the instruction should be clearly stated, with a definite focus free from any ambiguity. That is to say the processes are linked from relationship (collaboration and involvement), creative tendencies ( Problems solving, discovery, questioning and thinking) to donation which is referred to authentic focus such as (clarity, focus, factual, visionary and universal).

Having learners fully engaged into their own learning, it could be possible learners to derive enjoy, interest and persistence in what they learn and when the interest is rose, that will lead to intrinsic motivation, if the learners are motivated it will yield to achievement in which that could yield to a better assessment(examination/CGPA) or demonstration ability.

The Evolution of Mathematical Values Theory

There were numerous researches conducted on mathematics values, such as Krathwohl, Bloom and Masia, (1964); Raths, Harmin and Simon, (1987); Tomlinson and Quinton, (1986), on affective aspects of mathematics education. Buxton, (1981); Fasheh, (1982); McLeod, (1992; Thompson, (1992); Sosniak, et al, (1991), and on social and cultural aspects of mathematics education.

Bishop, (1988); Davis and Hersh, (1981) and (1986); Joseph, (1991); Wilson, (1986). These also made tremendous contribution on the affective domain and values education generally.

With regard Krathwohl’s (1964), analysis of the affective domain of Bloom’s well-known Taxonomy first introduced the ideas of ‘values’ and ‘valuing’ as important educational objectives in the area of mental cognitive development of individual and that analysis suggested five levels of response to a phenomenon in an increasing degrees of commitment and these are: acceptance of value, preference for a value, commitment, conceptualization of a value and organization of a value system.

Mover-over, Raths, Harmin and Simon (1987), drawing an analogy from the oft-quoted book, in which they offer seven criteria for calling something worthy of valuing. They say (p.199): "Unless something meet up the following seven criteria noted below, then we do not call it a value, but rather either a ‘belief’ or an ‘attitude’ or something other than a value."

They summarize this criteria in the following terms: Choosing freely, Choosing from alternatives, Choosing after thought consideration of the consequences of each alternative, Prizing and cherishing , Affirming, Acting upon choices and Repeating.

Both the Taxonomy and the criteria emphasized on certain aspects of valuing which seem important to focus on, such as: Existence of alternatives, Choices and Choosing, Preferences and Consistency.

In relation to values education generally, the work of Tomlinson and Quinton (1986) was particularly important since it moved the discussion from earlier reliance on the work of Kohlberg (1984) and his followers into the mainstream subject curriculum.

They argued strongly that when considering this area due attention should be given to three elements: aims or intended outcomes; means or teaching/learning processes; and effects or actual outcomes.

Buxton (1981) and Fasheh (1982), and McLeod (1992), in one of the current and comprehensive research on values separated the field into studies of beliefs, of attitudes, and of emotions.

They are also follow suit like others who have surveyed the area, cite no research on values, even though the tone of their discussion makes it clear that ideas about both beliefs and attitudes towards mathematics were related to values held by both mathematics teachers and students.

Therefore, this study, that is " An investigation into values inculcation in mathematics teaching and learning among secondary schools teachers' in Nigeria" will be based on the Professor Alan J. Bishop, (1988 and 1999) who theorized the study of values in mathematics within the frame-work of six values cluster of mathematical values.

These values are: Ideological mathematical values (rationalism/objectivism), Attitudinal mathematical values ( control/progress) and Sociological mathematical values ( openness/mystery) which this study is going be used as it's theoretical frame.

JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

JEAN PIAGET’S COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT THEORY

Piaget’s Stage of Cognitive Development theory is a description of cognitive development as four distinct stages in children, they are as follows:

i) Sensory- motor stage

ii) Preoperational stage

iii) Concrete and

iv) Formal stage

Originator: Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

A Swiss biologist and psychologist Jean Piaget, who had his life time between (1896-1980) observed his children (and their process of making sense of the world around them) and eventually developed a four-stage model of how the mind processes new information encountered. He posited that children progress through 4 stages which we had mentioned above. These four stages are:

SENSORY- MOTOR STAGE:

From birth to 2 years old, infant builds an understanding of himself or herself and reality of how things work through interactions with the environment. They could be able to differentiate between things that surround the environment including things like objects. Learning takes place through assimilation (the organization of information and absorbing it into existing schema) and accommodation (when an object cannot be assimilated and the schemata have to be modified to include the object.

PRE-OPERATIONAL STAGE:

This stage ranges between the (ages 2 to 4), where children are not yet able to conceptualize abstractly things in the environment, as such, they need concrete physical situations. In this stage objects are classified in simple ways, especially by important features.

CONCRETE OPERATIONS:

This stage ranges from the (ages 7 to 11), where physical experiences accumulate and things within the environment started to be accommodated by children and this situation keeps on increasing on daily bases through every encounter. The children begin to think abstractly and conceptualize, creating logical structures that explain their physical experiences.

FORMAL OPERATIONS:

This stage has been classified as a stage which ranges between the ( ages 11 to 15), in this stage, it has been assumed that, children cognition reaches its final form. It is in this stage, that a person requires no any concrete objects to make any objective as well as rational decision making. It was also expected that at this stage an individual is capable of deductive and hypothetical reasoning. An individual will be capable for abstract thinking similar to that of an adult

What is students' learning?

The meaning of students learning generally and in mathematics teaching is/are the ability to comprehend mathematical knowledge. In other words it can be said seen from one's ability to have change in skills of doing calculation, transformation, and problem solving approaches in such a process that student could be able to develop the following characteristic:

• understand and make sense of what they learn;
  
  
• create meaning and make their own ideas.
  

• focus on the meaning of what they have learn;
  
  
• try to develop their own understanding;
  
  
• relate ideas together and make connections with previous experiences;
  
  
• ask themselves questions about what they're learning, discuss their ideas with others and enjoy comparing different perspectives;
  
  
• are likely to explore the subject beyond the immediate requirements;
  
  
• are likely to have positive emotions about learning. Another area which facilitates understanding is the surface approach
  
  

When Learners are taking a surface approach the aim is:

• to reproduce information to meet external (assessment) demands;
  
  
• to meet requirements minimally, and appear to be focused on passing the assessment instead of (rather than as well as) learning.

What are the Impact of (ICT) on students learning ability?

The impact of (ICT) on students learning ability cannot be over emphasized, why? This is because of the following reasons:

(ICT) enable students to be connected to world find information regarding their worldviews (ICT) enable students to get academics learning materials through the popular such engine, such as google etc.

(ICT) makes teaching and learning simpler and easier.

Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory: Instructional Technology (IT) Perspective

The advent of the application of Vygotsky's sociocultural theory via instructional technology uses, for example, computer games and video games on children cognitive development ability was dated back to 1934, when American writer E.B. White (1993) warned that television was going to be the test of modern world. He also asserted that, we shall either remain stand or fall by the television.

Although, this proclaimed assertion on television has became the hottest issue today, more especially in the area of children social, emotional and cognitive development.

The impact of television and other media on the sociocultural mental development of children have became the most common topic of discussion among psychologists, and researching is on going in the area of finding the impact of environment on children cognitive development and all this researches rooted from Vygotsky's sociocultural theory on children cognitive development.

Before further advancement, on the above discussion, it's seems there is need to give a little preamble on "Lev Vygotsky". Lev Vygotsky was one of the famous theorist on child cognitive development, although he died in the early 1934, before his theory was fully developed.

Vygotsky's sociocultural theory became one of the most influential theories of cognitive development which reached its peak popularity during the 1980's and 1990's respectively. It was in that time the impact of television and other media outlets on children was under strict scrutiny.

The Objectives of Vygotsky's Sociocultural Theory
i) The theory may help us understand "Why" and "How" television, video games, computer games and other related media can strongly influence children cognitive development.
ii) The theory may be of benefit in facilitating understanding of the role plays by observation on children cognitive development processes.
iii) The theory as one of it's objective signifies that, interactions among people or children peer groups influence children cognitive development ability, (Sternberg, et al., 2002).

Distinctive nature of Vygotsky's sociocultural affiliation and today's world view

Vygotsky used interchangeably the word " environment" with "their world" and that only signifies the wider scope of the term.

Culture today is made up of a technology-reliant society dependent upon television and other electronic media such as computers, cd's players, video etc., as a primary source of entertainment. The most saddest situation is how children often do not know what to do when television, computer or video games are not available, hence the common utterance of the words “I’m bored” or "I'm tired".

This may be what most distinguishes the present era from that of Vygotsky's time. Children environment today is quite different than that on which Vygotsky would have based his sociocultural theory.

Nevertheless, his theory may be apply now more than ever before, with media becoming such a powerful and a permanent part of children live in their immediate environment.

Write about the three learning theories you know.

The three learning theories are categorized under the following sub-heading:
i) Behaviorism as a learning theory
ii) Cognitivism as a learning theory
iii) Constructivism as a learning theory.

But, first and forest, let's define the term learning. Learning can simply be defined as the process of acquiring knowledge or the situation whereby there exists a change in one's behavior. But in psychology learning is commonly defined as a process that brings together cognitive, emotional, and environmental influences and experiences for acquiring, enhancing, or making changes in one's knowledge, skills, values, and world views (Illeris, 2004; Ormrod, 1995).

Learning as a process focuses on what happens when the learning takes place. Explanations of what happens constitute what we called learning theories. Now we go a head discussing the three fundamentals learning theories as mentioned above.

i) Behaviorist: This learning theory advocated on learning by stimuli, response and re-enforcement. From Islamic perspective of this theory concurred with the pedagogy of Rasulullah, Prophet Muhammad (PBUH) in way that, when tracing back on how revelation began.
It was a popular sirah among the Muslim Ummah that with the appearance of Angel Jibril as the our noble Prophet to read! (Iqra) repeatedly but the Prophet (PBUH) replied that I could be able to read and then Angel JIbril (AS) hugs the Prophet and that could be termed as the sign of re-enforcement.

After that hugging the Prophet, was ordered to read in the name our lord. Therefore, going by the above analysis we can say behaviorism as learning theory was in conformity with the pedagogy of our noble Prophet peace and blessing of Allah be upon him.

ii) Cognitivist: This learning theory presumed that learning took place only when one engaged learning by either memorization, analysis, synthesizing or problem solving mechanism.

When relating this learning theory within the Islamic context, we can vividly see that, Prophet Muhammad (PBHU) is most learned human being on the earth until today and he hailed from Arab tribe and as such usually found that Arabs were characterized as the best in terms of memorization ability as compared to other races.

It was also established that, children who were early exposed to Qur'anic system of education do much better in formal schooling system more especially in the area of sciences.

iii) Constructivist: Constructivist as one of the learning theories advocated that learning usually took place within the confine of collaboration between individual or groups of people. through collaboration one would be able to discover certain potential, to agree or disagree, to believe or not believe, to accept or not accept.

Through this, most what learned remained permanently in one's mind. Linking this learning theory to Islam, could be viewed from one of the Prophet Hadith, narrated that, there were group of sahaba sent for an errand by the Prophet and the prophet ordered them to pray Asr prayer at the final destination.

On their way going, Asr prayer time catches with them, there, some among the sahaba prayed before and some prayed after reaching the final destination. When they narrated to the prophet, he said they were all right. This was discovery learning by the sahabatul Rasulullah (SAW).

Thank to Allah (SWT)

Assalamu alaikum Dr.

I thank Allah (SWT) for giving us an able lecturer like you, who is up and doing in the course of shearing her both Quranic, education technology and Instructional technology knowledge with us.
May Allah reward you abundantly and bless your entire family.

Yours Obedient Student
Mukhtar Alhaji Liman
INSTED